From top; left to right: Savannas, sclerophyll forests, coastal heaths, rainforests and scrublands
There are 79 vegetation communities in the Sydney metropolitan area that are identified, described and mapped.[4] The combination of climate, topography, moisture, and soil influence the dispersion of these ecological communities across a height gradient from 0 to 200 metres (0 to 700 ft).[5] There are many hiking trails, paved and unpaved roads for exploring the many different biomes and ecosystems.[6][7][8]
It has been calculated that around 98,000 hectares of native vegetation remains in the Sydney metropolitan area, shaping the geography of Sydney, about half of what is likely to have been existing at the time of European arrival.[12]
Historical descriptionsedit
In 1787, Arthur Bowes Smyth from the First Fleet described the landscape as "...fresh terraced, lawns and grottos with distinct plantations of the tallest and most stately trees I ever saw in any nobleman's grounds in England, cannot excel in beauty those whose nature now presented to our view." Furthermore, early settlers compared the landscapes to the manicured parks of England which also featured well-spaced trees and a grassy understorey.[13]
In 1819, British settler William Wentworth described Sydney's vegetation and landform in great detail:
The colony of New South Wales possesses every variety of soil, from the sandy heath, and the cold hungry clay, to the fertile loam and the deep vegetable mould. For the distance of 5 mi (8.0 km) to 6 mi (9.7 km) from the coast, the land is in general extremely barren, being a poor hungry sand, thickly studded with rocks. A few miserable stunted gums, and a dwarf underwood, are the richest productions of the best part of it; while the rest never gives birth to a tree at all, and is only covered with low flowering shrubs, whose infinite diversity, however, and extraordinary beauty, render this wild heath the most interesting part of the country for the botanist, and make even the less scientific beholder forget the nakedness and sterility of the scene.
Beyond this barren waste, which thus forms a girdle to the coast, the country suddenly begins to improve. The soil changes to a thin layer of vegetable mould, resting on a stratum of yellow clay, which is again supported by a deep bed of schistus. The trees of the forest are here of the most stately dimensions. Full sized gums and iron barks, alongside of which the loftiest trees in this country would appear as pigmies, with the beefwood tree, or as it is generally termed, the forest oak, which is of much humbler growth, are the usual timber. The forest is extremely thick, but there is little or no underwood.
At this distance, however, the aspect of the country begins rapidly to improve. The forest is less thick, and the trees in general are of another description; the iron barks, yellow gums, and forest oaks disappearing, and the stringy barks, blue gums, and box trees, generally usurping their stead. When you have advanced about 4 mi (6.4 km) further into the interior, you are at length gratified with the appearance of a country truly beautiful. An endless variety of hill and dale, clothed in the most luxuriant herbage, and covered with bleating flocks and lowing herds, at length indicate that you are in regions fit to be inhabited by civilized man. The soil has no longer the stamp of barrenness. A rich loam resting on a substratum of fat red clay, several feet in depth, is found even on the tops of the highest hills, which in general do not yield in fertility to the valleys. The timber, strange as it may appear, is of inferior size, though still of the same nature, i. e. blue gum, box, and stringy bark. There is no underwood, and the number of trees upon an acre do not upon an average exceed thirty. They are, in fact, so thin, that a person may gallop without difficulty in every direction.[14]
The Blue Gum High Forest – Strictly found in northern parts of Sydney, it is a wet sclerophyll forest where the annual rainfall is over 1100 mm (43 in), with its trees between 20 and 40 metres tall.[22]
Cumberland Plain Woodland – These are shrub and grass eucalyptus communities located in areas of low to moderate rainfall (less than 950 millimetres annually) and are most commonly found in large parts of the Sydney metropolitan area, namely in Western Sydney or the Cumberland Plain. Moist Shale Woodlands[28] also exist within this biome, but they are distinguished by their lusher plant habitats.[29] It is a dry woodland remnant containing waxy-leaved shrubs, twiners, herbs and small trees in a grassy understorey.[30] It has a number of sub-regions: Moist Shale Woodlands, Western Sydney dry rainforest, and Shale sandstone transition forest, among others.[31]
Sydney Hinterland Dry Sclerophyll Forests – Found in the drier parts (less than 950 mm) of the Woronora Plateau, also in Appin, Sandy Point, pockets in the southwestern edges of the Cumberland Plain (on the doorsteps of the Blue Mountains), and on the foreshores of the Hawkesbury River, it features 10–25 m tall eucalyptus trees with ostensible sclerophyll shrub understorey and open groundcover of sclerophyll sedges.[34][35]
Cooks River/Castlereagh ironbark forest – Found in Castlereagh and Holsworthy, and a few remnants in the cities of Auburn, Bankstown and Liverpool, it is an ironbark shrub-grass forest located in western Sydney that sit on gravelly-clay soils and is made up of a moderately tall open eucalyptus forest or woodland to a low compact brush of paperbarks with nascent eucalypts. Broad-leaved ironbark (Eucalyptus fibrosa) is the most commonly spotted tree.[23][36]
Coastal Dune Dry Sclerophyll Forests – Examples are found at Bundeena, Kurnell and La Perouse in southern Sydney containing a collection of sclerophyllous shrub and heath species and a ferny ground cover.[38]
Sydney Coastal Heaths – Found extensively in the Sydney metropolitan area and in the eastern parts of the Woronora and Hornsby plateaus particularly in Royal and Ku-ring-gai national parks with prominence of Eucalyptus luehmanniana.[40] Heaths on coastal headlands are found in and around Garie Beach on the outskirts of southern Sydney, near Royal NP.[41]
Scrublands/Shrublands
Elderslie Banksia Scrub Forest – A critically endangered scrubby woodland community situated in southwestern Sydney that features a variety of stunted forest or woodland found on sandy substrates associated with deep Tertiary sand deposits. It has been reduced in extent of at least 90% of its original pre-European extent.[42]
Castlereagh swamp woodland – A swampy sclerophyll forest affiliated with sporadically flooded soils containing Tertiary, Holocene and Quaternary sand deposits. It is found in low-elevated areas of Liverpool and in Voyager Point, and is made up of moderate to heavy cover of paperbark trees.[40]
Coastal Heath Swamps – Common in Holsworthy defense area, Woronora catchment area and the Hornsby plateau including Garigal and Ku-ring-gai Chase national parks.[46]
Coastal Freshwater Lagoons – Occurs on poorly drained alluvial flats and sand depressions and may be surrounded by broad-leaved cumbungi (Typha orientalis).[47]
Sydney coastal river-flat forest – Found on the river flats of the coastal floodplains in most parts of Sydney that have rivers or creeks (and as well as other regions in eastern New South Wales). They are gallery forests that prominently features tall, open eucalypts and casuarinas that stand on silt, clay-loam and sandy loam soils on sporadically flooded alluvial flats, drainage lines and river terraces associated with coastal floodplains.[49][30]
Coastal Floodplain Wetlands – They cover a series of eucalypt and casuarina dominated communities found on low-lying coastal alluvial soils, such as in Georges River and its tributaries in northern Woronora and the lowlands of Blue Mountains. They are dominated by Microlaena stipoides.[51]
Eastern Riverine Forests – Many riparian scrubs are found on rocky creeks that are enclosed with coarse sandy alluvial deposits with common vegetation being Tristaniopsis laurina.[52]
Saltmarshes – Usually located on estuarine alluvial soils, small tracts also exist on headlands exposed to prevailing sea spray.[54]
Seagrass Meadows – Occurring on sandy nether of coastal estuaries and bays, they include a number of subaqueous aquatic species, such as eel grass (Zostera spp) and sea grass (Posidonia australis).[55]
About 40 species of reptiles are found in the Sydney region and 30 bird species exist in the urban areas.[61][62][63] Sydney's outer suburbs, namely those adjacent to large parks, have a great diversity of wildlife.[64] Since European settlement and the subsequent bushland clearing for the increasing population, 60% of the original mammals are now considered endangered or vulnerable, and many reptile species are experiencing population diminution and are becoming elusive.[65]
Tetrapodsedit
This list includes bird species that are widespread in the Sydney metropolitan area:[66]
^James, T. McDougall, L. and Benson, D.H. (1999) Rare Bushland Plants of Western Sydney, second edition, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
^ABORIGINAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES DARUG COUNTRY SYDNEY HARBOUR BRIDGE CYCLEWAY ACCESS PROGRAM - NORTH. MARCH 2021. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
^Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of NSW by William Charles Wentworth, 1819
^Kohen, J. (September 1996). "The Impact of Fire: An Historical Perspective". Australian Plants Online. Society for Growing Australian Plants.
^Bell SAJ and Driscoll C 2007, Vegetation of the Cessnock-Kurri Region, Cessnock LGA, New South Wales: Survey, Classification and Mapping. Unpublished Report to Department of Environment and Climate Change. Eastcoast Flora Survey. November 2007.
^Tozer MG 2003, The native vegetation of the Cumberland Plain, western Sydney: systematic classification and field identification of communities. Cunninghamia 8:1-75.
^Young B and Young A 2006, Understanding the Scenery: The Royal National Park with Heathcote National Park. Envirobook, Annandale NSW.
^Biosphere Environmental Consultants Pty Ltd 2008, Ryde Flora and Fauna Study 2008. Unpublished report prepared for Ryde City Council.
^Bangalay Ecological and Bushfire and Eastcoast Flora Survey 2011, Pittwater Vegetation Classification, Vegetation Mapping, pre-1750 Vegetation Mapping and Vegetation Profiles’. Report prepared for Pittwater Council.
^"Sydney Blue Gum High Forest" (PDF). Nationally Threatened Species and Ecological Communities. Environment.gov.au. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 June 2012. Retrieved 16 May 2012.
^ abAuburn Council 2004, Auburn Council State of the Environment Report 2003-2004. Auburn Council, Auburn
^Bankstown City Council 2002, Bushland Plan of Management – Reserves at Lansdowne including Mirambeena Reserve, Lansdowne Reserve, Bogabilla Reserve and Amaroo Reserve. Unpublished report prepared for Bankstown City Council.
^Andrew, D. (2001). Post fire vertebrate fauna survey: Royal and Heathcote National Parks and Garawarra State Recreation Area. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^Fairley A and Waterhouse D 2005, West Sydney Wild – Exploring Nature in Sydney’s Western Suburbs. Rosenberg Publishing Pty Ltd, Dural, NSW.
^Baulkham Hills Shire Council 2007, The bushland of Hunts Creek Reserve and Seville Reserve. Baulkham Hills Shire Council, Sydney.
^Earth Resource Analysis PL 1998, Cumberland Plains Woodland: Trial Aerial Photographic interpretation of remnant woodlands, Sydney. Unpublished report prepared for NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service – Sydney Zone.
^ abJames, T. (1997). Native flora in Western Sydney: Urban Bushland Biodiversity Survey. NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service.
^Benson D and Howell J 1994b, Hawkesbury-Nepean Catchment Studies. Draft Explanatory Notes for the Wollongong 1:100 000 Map Sheet. Ecology Section, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
^Tozer, M. G. (2003). "The native vegetation of the Cumberland Plain, western Sydney: systematic classification and field identification of communities". Cunninghamia. 8: 1–75.
^DECC 2008a, Protecting and restoring the Cumberland Plain Woodland community at Campbell Hill West Reserve, Chester Hill. Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW, Sydney South
^Herbert C 1980, ‘Wianamatta Group and Mittagong Formation’ in C Herbert and R Helby (eds) A guide to the Sydney Basin. Department of Mineral Resources, Geological Survey of New South Wales Bulletin 26, 4-9.
^Anne Clements and Associates 2003, Flora Assessment: Proposed "Banksia Grove" residential subdivision, Bundock St, Randwick. Unpublished report prepared for Bowen and Gerathy Solicitors.
^ abDEC 2004, Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub Endangered Ecological Community Recovery Plan. NSW Department of Environment and Conservation, Hurstville.
^Fullerton RN 1998, Community Structure of Cliff-Top Coastal Heathlands in Botany Bay National Park, Sydney. Submitted to the University of Technology, Sydney in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
^Castlereagh Scribbly Gum and Agnes Banks Woodlands of the Sydney Basin Bioregion Department of the Environment (2022). Castlereagh Scribbly Gum and Agnes Banks Woodlands of the Sydney Basin Bioregion in Community and Species Profile and Threats Database, Department of the Environment, Canberra.
^"Urban Bushland in the Ryde LGA - Sydney Sandstone Ridgetop Woodland" (PDF). Ryde Council. Retrieved 15 November 2018.
^Coast and Wetlands Society 1982, Temporal Changes in the Estuarine Flora and Fauna of Towra Point, Botany Bay. Unpublished report prepared for the Coastal Council of NSW.
^Brunker RL and Rose G 1969, Sydney Basin, New South Wales, 1:500 000 geological sheet. Special edition., Geological Survey of New South Wales, 1vBryan, JH (1966), Sydney 1:250 000 Geological Sheet S1 56-5. Department of Mineral Resources Sydney NSW.
^Swamp Oak Floodplain Forest of the New South Wales North Coast, Sydney Basin and South East Corner Bioregions - profile NSW Environment & Heritage. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
^River-Flat Eucalypt Forest on Coastal Floodplains of the New South Wales North Coast, Sydney Basin and South East Corner Bioregions - profile by Office of Environment & Heritage (NSW Government)
^Keith DA and Myerscough PJ 1993, Floristics and soil relations of Upland Swamp vegetation near Sydney.
Australian Journal of Ecology 18:325-344
^Harden GJ (ed.) 2000-2002, The Flora of New South Wales. Volume 1-2 (Revised Edition) New South Wales University Press.
^AGC Woodward-Clyde Pty Ltd 1996, Cronulla Sewerage Treatment Plant Upgrade Environmental Impact Statement. Unpublished report prepared for Sydney Water.
^Keith DA and Scott J 2005, Native vegetation of coastal floodplains – a diagnosis of the major plant
communities in New South Wales. Pacific Conservation Biology 11: 81-104
^Adam P, Stricker P, Wiecek BM and Anderson DJ 1989, The vegetation of seacliffs and headlands in New South Wales, Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 14, 515-547.
^Humphries, S.E., Groves, R.H., and Mitchell, D.S. (1991) 'Plant Invasions of Australian Ecosystems. Kowari 2'
^Hindwood, K. A. and McCill, A. R., 1958. The Birds of Sydney (Cumberland Plain) New South Wales. Roy. Zool. Soc. New South Wales.
^"Sydney's flying foxes now Bundy's problem". North Queensland Register. 2 August 2012. Archived from the original on 30 December 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
^Williams, J. et al. 2001. Biodiversity, Australia State of the Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report), CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. ISBN 0-643-06749-3
^Cogger, H.G. (2000). Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Reed New Holland.
^Green, D., 1973. -Re reptiles of the outer north-western suburbs of Sydney. Herpetofauna 6 (2): 2-5.
^ abAustralian Museum Online. "Crows and Ravens". Archived from the original on 1 September 2007. Retrieved 12 August 2007.
^Burton, Thomas C. (1993). "9. Family Microhylidae" (PDF). Fauna of Australia series, Environment Australia website. Canberra: Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2011. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
^Merriam, C. and Wagner, J., 1992. Local extinctions, habitat fragmentation and ecozones. Pp. 150-69 in Landscape Boundaries: Biodiversity and Ecologicy by A. J. Hanron and F. De Castri. Springer: New York.
^Dolby, Tim; Clarke, Rohan (2014). Finding Australian Birds. CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 9780643097667.
^Cogger, H. G. (2000). Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Reed New Holland.
^Green, D. (1973). "Re reptiles of the outer north-western suburbs of Sydney". Herpetofauna. 6 (2): 2–5.
^Lomov, B. (2005). Plant-insect interactions as indicators for restoration ecology (PhDthesis). Sydney: University of Sydney.
^Lowe, E.C.; Wilder, S.M.; Hochuli, D.F. (2016), "Persistence and survival of the spider Nephila plumipes in cities: do increased prey resources drive the success of an urban exploiter?", Urban Ecosyst, 19 (2): 705–720, doi:10.1007/s11252-015-0518-9, S2CID 16169674